Nineteenth Century

"Gray's Anatomy" remains the most popular medical text ever written and is still in print.

Traité complet d'anatomie de l'homme (1866-1871) 2nd ed. by Bourgery, Bernard, and Jacob
The art of medical illustration reached another peak in the nineteenth century with the eleven volume compendium by Bourgery and Claude Bernard with anatomist NH Jacob, written between 1866 and 1871. The beauty of the colored illustrations has remained unsurpassed. This is a representation of the chest and the abdomen.
Traité complet d'anatomie de l'homme (1866-1871) 2nd ed. by Bourgery, Bernard, and Jacob
the back muscles
Traité complet d'anatomie de l'homme (1866-1871) 2nd ed. by Bourgery, Bernard, and Jacob
the facial muscles
Traité complet d'anatomie de l'homme (1866-1871) 2nd ed. by Bourgery, Bernard, and Jacob
an "exploded skull"
Skull hemisection
Traité complet d'anatomie de l'homme (1866-1871), 2nd ed. by Bourgery, Bernard, and Jacob
Traité complet d'anatomie de l'homme (1866-1871) 2nd ed. by Bourgery, Bernard, and Jacob
venous system of the shoulder
Anatomy Descriptive and Surgical (1858) by Henry Gray
Henry Gray's text remains relevant today, though John W Parker and Son published the first edition in London in 1858; the engravings were accurately “executed by Messrs. Butterworth and Heath.” This is the anatomy of the heart.

Eighteenth Century

Physicians during the eighteenth century continued to depend upon artists for their training in anatomy (while the debate of whether these representations were art or medicine raged). 

Tabulae anatomicae Bartolomaei Eustachi quas a tenebris tandem vindicates (1714) by Bartolomaeo Eustachi
Bartolomaeo Eustachi (1513?-1574) was an Italian professor of anatomy, a position that allowed him to obtain cadavers for dissection from nearby hospitals. His anatomic works were precise, and in many cases more anatomically correct than those of his contemporary, Andreas Vesalius, though not as artistically advanced. Upon Eustachi’s death in 1574, his unpublished thirty-nine plates subsequently found their way into the Vatican Library, where they remained lost for over one hundred fifty years. In the early part of the eighteenth century, the physician to Pope Clement XI located the missing plates, completed the text with his own narrative, and released all forty-seven studies in 1714. Had the illustrations been published at the time of their initial execution, Eustachi almost certainly would have been recognized with Vesalius as one of the founders of modern anatomy. This is a representation of the reno-vascular system.
Tabulae anatomicae (1741) by Pietro da Cortona
Pierto da Cortona (1596-1669) was one of the most important painters of the Renaissance Italian Baroque period, and his large ceiling frescoes influenced European art for many years after his death. Cortona’s figures were also anxious to demonstrate their muscles more as an art form than as a guide to physicians. This is a demonstration of the muscular system
Tabulae anatomicae (1741) by Pietro da Cortona
another representation of the muscular system
Osteographia (1733) by William Cheselden
Probably the finest illustrations of the musculoskeletal system produced in the eighteenth century were by William Cheselden and by Siegfried Albinus. This is a representation of the skeletal anatomy
"praying skeleton" by William Cheselden ((1688-1752), (ca. 1730)
another illustration by Cheselten
Tabulae Sceleti e Musculorum Corporis Humani (1747) by Bernhardus Siegfried Albinus
the muscle man
The Reward of Cruelty (1751) by William Hogarth
In his etching of the dissection of Tom Nero, William Hogarth illustrated the criminal source of a great deal of anatomic material. Note that the hangman’s noose remained tied around the neck of the subject being dissected while his entrails were being fed to a dog, a certain sign of disrespect.
Anatomie des parties de la génération de l'homme et de la femme (1773) by Jacques Fabien Gautier D'Agoty
Jacques Fabien Gautier D’Agoty (1717-1786) gave us perhaps the most magnificent art in the history of medicine. He was the assistant to Jacob Christian Le Blon, inventor of printing in color, and D’Agoty adapted those techniques to his medical illustration by using a four-color process. He continued the tradition of medical anatomy as an art form in his color mezzotints. This is the muscular anatomy.
Anatomie des parties de la génération de l'homme et de la femme (1773) by Jacques Fabien Gautier D'Agoty
female musculature
Anatomie de la tête en tableux (1748) by Jacques Fabien Gautier D'Agoty
the anatomy of the head
Myologie complette en couleur et grandeur naturelle (1746) by Jacques Fabien Gautier D'Agoty
"The Flayed Angel"
Nouveau recueil d'ostéologie et de myologie (1779) by Jacques Gamelin
Another great artist of the eighteenth century was Jacques Gamelin; this is a representation of a kneeling skeleton
Nouveau recueil d'ostéologie et de myologie (1779) by Jacques Gamelin
"The Dance of Death"

Seventeenth Century

It was in the seventeenth century that modern medicine began with the publication of Sir William Harvey's classic text Exercitatio anatomica de motu cordis. He introduced the scientific method, and medicine had finally and forever ascended from the Dark Ages. 

Tabulae Anatomicae (1627) by Giulio Cesare
Dissected figures seemed to delight in playfully showing off their anatomy in the copperplates of Odoardo Fialetti in Tabulae anatomicae by Giulio Cesare Casseri (1552-1616). This is a demonstration of the internal organs.
William Harvey, oil by an unknown artist
Possibly the most important landmark in the history of medicine, and indeed in all of science came in 1628 when William Harvey (1578-1657) wrote Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus. Harvey’s study of circulatory physiology was another major departure from the long held principles held by Galen. His use of the scientific method and his application of mathematical measurements to vital phenomena revolutionized medical investigation. This was one of several paintings saved by a librarian from the great London fire of 1666 as he ran with with it under his arm.
Exercitatio anatomica de motu cordis (1628) by William Harvey
the title page
Exercitatio anatomica de motu cordis (1628) by William Harvey
Harvey's famous illustration depicting the circulation and venous valves
A compleat treatise of the muscles as they appear in the humane body (1681) by John Browne
John Browne (1642-1702) produced a copperplate showing a posing nobleman in this depiction of the muscular system. Here the subject appears to be from the upper class though the poor were usually the ones whose remains found their way onto dissecting tables for study by artists and physicians.
De motu animalium (1680-1681) by Giovanni Alfonso Borelli
Anatomists and physiologists began to interpret the body in terms of its structure and mechanics, leaving aside questions of religion and the “soul” to clerics. Astronomer and mathematician Giovanni Borelli of Pisa exemplified this approach in his De Motu Animalium when he applied the laws of physics to view the body as a machine that functioned by way of a system of pulleys and levers. This is a demonstration of leg joints
The Anatomy of humane Bodies (1698) by William Cowper
This is the title page of perhaps the finest anatomy text of the seventeenth century. William Cowper published the same book using the same illustrations, merely providing a translation from Latin into English. He did not acknowledge Bidloo as the true author anywhere in the book, and pasted a small printed flap (see below) with his own name over that of Bidloo on the engraved title page of the first edition.
The Anatomy of humane Bodies (1698) by William Cowper
This is a close up of Cowper's title page with pasted on credits over Bidloo's name.
Anatomia humani corporis (1685) by Govard Bidloo
the skeletal anatomy
Anatomia humani corporis (1685) by Govard Bidloo
the muscles of the arm
Anatomia humani corporis (1685) by Govard Bidloo
the abdominal anatomy
The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicholaes Tulp (1632) by Rembrandt van Rijn
Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669) turned his attention to medicine in this famous painting. The Amsterdam Company of Surgeons had commissioned this work when Rembrandt was only 26 years old, and shows Dr. Tulp, a leading Dutch physician at the time, pointing out a tendon in a cadaver. Dr. Tulp was actually demonstrating the function of the tendons that flexed the fingers rather than their anatomy since he was more interested in the role of functional anatomy as a clue to the causes of disease.
Anatomia per uso et intellligenza del disegno ricercata non solo su gl'ossi (1691) by Bernardo Genga
Ecorché statuettes, or flayed anatomic models, were popular during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and were often patterned after sketches similar to this copperplate ecorché by Bernardino Genga, (1620-1690).
sketch by Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640)
muscular system sketch for an ecorche

Sixteenth Century

The first true great anatomic illustrations were by Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), who was an acclaimed inventor, engineer, and architect prior to his achieving fame as an artist. Illustrations that follow from "De humani corporis fabrica libri septem" by Andreas Vesalius mark the beginning of modern medicine since they are the result of independent investigation.  

Vitruvian Man (ca. 1487) by Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo da Vinci drew the Vitruvian Man after the inspiration of architect Vitruvius in order to demonstrate the "perfect" proportions of man. The male anatomy in separate positions superimposes exactly on both a circle and a square.
sketches by Leonardo da Vinci (ca. 1500)
the skeletal system
sketches by Leonardo da Vinci (ca. 1500)
the muscular system
sketches by Leonardo da Vinci (ca. 1500)
principal arteries and organs of the female
De humani corporis fabrica libri septem (1543) by Andreas Vesalius
Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) brought medicine into the modern era with his monumental work De humani corporis fabrica libri septem (1543), now considered one of the greatest books in the history of medicine and science. Vesalius took that first great step away from the dogma that had strangled scientific investigation for centuries when he discarded all of Galen’s previously held “truths” and based his anatomic investigations on what he himself observed with his own careful dissections. This is a self-portrait from the first edition.
De humani corporis fabrica libri septem (1543) by Vesalius
the title page
De humani corporis fabrica libri septem (1543) by Vesalius
the skeletal system
De humani corporis fabrica libri septem (1543) by Vesalius
the muscular system
La dissection des parties du corps humain (1546) by Charles Estienne
a cross section of the brain
Anatomy lesson given by Michelangelo to other artists by Bartolomeo Passarotti (1529-1592)

Fifteenth Century

The first to investigate anatomy through dissection was Mondino de Cuzzi (1275-1326) of Bolognia when he dissected a human cadaver in about 1315, this famous lesson now a landmark in the history of medicine. 

 

Fasciculus Medicinae (1493) by Johannes de Ketham
Johannes de Ketham illustrated Mondino's first dissection in Fasciculus Medicinae (1493), and thereby became the author of the first anatomic illustration ever to appear in print. The gentleman sitting in the chair at the center of the woodcut orchestrated the procedure while he read from one of Galen’s anatomic texts. This illustration is believed to be the origin of the term “chairman of the department”, and the actual dissection would not have been done by the physician himself, but rather by an assistant.
dissection performed by Mondino de Cuzzi in Bologna in 1318 by Ernest Board (late nineteenth century)
a later depiction of that first dissection

Anatomy

Artists were interested in the anatomy of the kidneys well before physicians understood the pathophysiology of any of these conditions.  

Kidneys, ureters, and bladder (ca. 1780), wax model from La Specola
This is another of the fine wax models now on display at the Specola museum just outside of Florence, Italy
Reports of Medical Cases (1827) by Richard Bright, MD
Traité complet d'anatomie de l'homme (1866-1871), 2nd ed. by Bourgery, Bernard, and Jacob
portrait of Dr. Richard Bright
The first to recognize the association between “dropsy” (fluid retention), albuminuria, elevated urea, and pathologic changes in the kidney was a British physician at Guy’s Hospital, Richard Bright (1789-1858), after whom “Bright’s Disease” was named.
Reports of Medical Cases (1827) by Richard Bright, MD
This is a hand-colored plate of the pathologic specimen of John King, the first case illustrated in Dr. Bright's landmark book.

Anatomic models

Artists eager to create representations of the human body employed many different varieties of media, including bronze, ivory, wax, and paper-mache (meaning chewed paper).  Ecorché statuettes, or flayed anatomic models, were popular during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries while beautiful eighteenth century wax models can still be seen on display at the Specola Museum in Florence, Italy. 

Ivory model by Stephan Zwick (seventeenth century)
These ivory manikins were usually between six and seven inches long, and the internal organs sometimes could be taken out for examination.
Bronze statuette by Ludovico Cigoli (1559-1613)
wax female abdominal anatomy from La Specola (ca. 1780)
Gaetano Guilo Zumbo was the first to make colored wax models in Bologna during the latter part of the seventeenth century, and Italian craftsmen improved upon his techniques the following century, creating some of the finest wax models ever made. Clemente Susini carried on this specialized craft in the eighteenth century, aided by the fine anatomist Paolo Mascagni. The wax figures had to be individually carved, and it took up to two hundred cadavers to make one model because of the lack of adequate preservation.
wax muscleman from La Specola (ca. 1780)
wax model of cranial nerves by Emil Korschi (ca. 1880)
wax superficial muscles of the thorax and abdomen by G. Zeiller (ca. 1880)
Daguerreotype of Dr. Louis T.J. Auzoux and paper-mache model (ca. 1860)
Louis Thomas Jerome Auzoux (1797-1880) addressed the demand for anatomic models in a different way by creating paper-mache representations of body parts, occasionally greater than life-size. Auzoux was a French medical graduate, though he never practiced medicine, preferring to supply anatomic figures to medical schools in Europe, England, and the United States. He took colored strips of paper and used either hide glue or natural resins to form full figures and anatomic parts for his models.
female paper-mache female anatomic model by Auzoux (1881)
The life-size female model pictured is posing as Venus de Milo, and all the muscles and organs are labeled.
male paper-mache anatomic model by Auzoux (ca. 1880)
This smaller male model currently resides at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC.
Beauchene anatomic model
"Exploded skulls" for demonstration were first manufactured by French anatomist Beauchene in the middle of the 19th century.
model of the brain by Auzoux
This ninteenth century model by Auzoux was made of plaster rather than the usual paper-mache,
Pilz Anatomical Manikin
This is a life-size paper manikin that that could be viewed in layers to demonstrate deeper sections of the body.
American Frohse Anatomical Charts by AJ Nysrom and Co.
This is one of ten early 20th century anatomic charts illustrating all parts of the body.
flap anatomical manikins by various makers (ca. 1900)
As the population grew rapidly at the beginning of the twentieth century, the increased need for study materials could only be met through mass production. The artistry of wax and paper-mache figures was lost forever, giving way to “flap” models with the anatomy of each organ revealed as a layer of paper or metal was peeled off from the one above. Flap anatomies (ca. 1880–1910): (top) Yaggy’s Anatomical Study by I.W. Yaggy and J.J. West, Smith’s American Manikin by Elias Smith, MD, Pilz Anatomical Manikin by American Thermo-Wave Co., NY; (bottom) Bodyscope by Ralph Segal, NY, Dr. Minder’s Anatomical Manikin of the Human Body by American Thermo-Wave Co., NY, Philip’s Model of the Human Body (Female) by George Philip and son, London

Anatomy

   "Whenever you shall be so unhappy as to fail in your Endeavours to relieve; let it be you constant Aim to convert particular Misfortunes into general Blessings, by carefully inspecting the Bodies of the Dead, inquiring into the Causes of their Diseases, and thence improving your own Knowledge, and making further and useful Discoveries in the healing Art." 

      A Discourse upon the Duties of a Physician by Samuel Bard, MD (1769) 

 

It was well into the twelfth century before anatomy became a legitimate part of the study of medicine. Many countries had political and religious laws restricting the use of human specimens for study. Cadavers for dissection were difficult to come by and preservation was inadequate, so it was through medical illustration that anatomy could first be publicly taught. Since most medical careers begin at the dissecting table, it is appropriate to open this web site with the study of anatomy. 

(Chapter Sections below, additional Pictures left)

Traité complet d'anatomie de l'homme (1866-1871), 2nd ed. by Bourgery, Bernard, and Jacob
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